ProCus Learning

Background The human body is composed of trillions of cells, each of which requires the continuous supply of oxygen (O_2) and the excretion of carbon dioxide (CO_2) for metabolism and survival. Therefore, measuring the amount of oxygen present in blood or tissues could help assess a person’s health and overall well-being [1]. Blood oxygenation is the measure of oxygen present in arterial or venous blood, while the measure of oxygen present in the vascular tissue or microvascular bed is referred to as tissue oxygenation. Blood oxygenation assesses how well oxygen binds to hemoglobin, indicating the adequacy of pulmonary gas exchange. Tissue oxygenation indicates the adequacy of tissue perfusion and is primarily determined by the local delivery of oxygenated blood [2] Oxygen enters the lungs and then passed into the blood. The blood carries oxygen to the various organs in our body. The main way oxygen is carried in our blood is through hemoglobin. The hemoglobin without oxygen is called ...

The four main consideration of today’s high-speed design:                                                                                                                                                            Ref(1) We need to consider signal integrity , which includes parameters such as Overshoot and Ringing. Need to look at crosstalk which is about EMI coupling between traces on PCB board Timing is about calculating the flight time EMI and radiation  These parameters are related to each other and aff...

The microprocessor does there major functions:  1. Read from Memory to internal register 2. Write to Memory from internal register 3. Execute using internal registers The microprocessor does not execute using external memory. It performs the execution using its internal registers. So Microprocessor performs two major activities externally. Read from Memory and Write to Memory are these two major activities. Let us discuss a generic microprocessor which has 16 address and 8 data lines. In this case, the Microprocessor can access up to 64 K locations because it has 16 address lines (2^16 = 64K). Since this microprocessor has 8 data lines each location contains 8 bits (1 byte). Now let us see the address range of Microprocessor Since representing in binary is quite laborious, we use Hexa-Decimal Representation which is nothing but a short form of Binary.  So the microprocessor which has 16 address lines can address 0000 - FFFF locations. The same way the 64K memory has 16 address...

The microprocessor performs two types of operations called Arithmetic and Logic. So, the basic functional unit which consists of Arithmetic (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division) and Logic (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR) is called Arithmetic Logic Unit. Now, let us see how the functions inside ALU are controlled by the control unit. The Control input is the one that informs the ALU units what operations are to be performed. So, even though the ALU can perform a lot of functions at a time, it perform only one operation based on the control input. This control input to the ALU is generated by the control unit which is shown below. Based on what criteria the Control unit generated the Control output? The control output is generated based on the input called Opcode(Operation code), which can be called an Instruction. How the Control unit is getting the Opcode? The Opcode is stored in Memory by the User as shown below. The user knows for each Opcode the behavior of the Control...

Embedded System is an electronic system/device that employs both hardware and software. A processor or the controller takes input from the physical world peripherals like sensors, actuators, etc., processes the same through appropriate software, and provides the desired output. In this case, the components have to communicate with each other to provide the output. Each communicating entity should agree to some protocol to exchange information. Many different protocols are available for embedded systems and are deployed depending upon the application area. In general, communication protocols are associated with a physical layer describing the signals incorporated, signal strength, handshaking mechanism, bus arbitration, device addressing, wired or wireless, data lines, etc. The processes such as system configuration, selection of baud rate, and transmitting & receiving data are associated with the application layer. Some important BUS protocol are:-  SPI, I2C, USB, UART, CAN, Et...